2 Congenital and Developmental Anomalies INTRODUCTION Congenital anomalies are developmental disorders that are present at birth. Congenital malformations are caused by chromosomal abnormalities, mutant genes, and major environmental factors such…
1 An Introduction to Ocular Anatomy and Histology A paired, hollow, spherical organ, the human eye is slightly less than an inch in diameter (Fig. 1-1A). Internally, it is divided…
Management of Nonproliferative Diabetic Retinopathy DIAGNOSIS Physical Examination Nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR) is also known as background diabetic retinopathy in the internal medicine literature. While the term, “nonproliferative” suggests a…
Management of Clinically Significant Macular Edema or Diabetic Macular Edema Diagnosis Diabetic macular edema is the most frequent cause of visual loss in patients with nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy. Approximately 50,000…
Management of Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy When one third of the diabetic population does not appreciate that they have diabetes, it is common for retinal specialists to see patients who present…
Diagnostic Testing FUNDUS PHOTOGRAPHY Standard fundus photography at the ophthalmologist’s office now includes a basic digital funduscopic camera or a wide-field nonmydriatic camera. In fact, many optometric offices have nonmydriatic…
New Treatment Modalities TRIAMCINOLONE Intravitreal Triamcinolone and Vitrectomy Intravitreal triamcinolone is used for visual demarcation of the vitreous at the time of vitrectomy. Kumagai and Burk1,2 performed this technique using…
Diabetes in Pregnancy Hyperglycemia affects 8% of all pregnancies in America.1 Preexisting diabetes affects 1% of all pregnancies. The hyperglycemia exists with Type 1 diabetes or gestational Type 2 diabetes….
Pathophysiology of Diabetes SYSTEMIC DISEASE AND DIABETES Type 1 diabetes, also known as juvenile onset diabetes or insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), is a chronic condition of the pancreas in which…
