Vitamins Alex V. Levin Thomas W. Wilson Elise Héon Vitamins, minerals, and metals are critical for the maintenance of ocular health and are required for the visual process. Many imbalances…

Cornea Alex V. Levin Thomas W. Wilson David Rootman Jerome Kazdan The cornea develops from surface ectoderm (corneal epithelium) and neural crest cells (corneal stroma and endothelium). Developmental anomalies can…

Gastrointestinal Alex V. Levin Thomas W. Wilson Stephen P During development, neural crest migration to form the gastrointestinal tract and many of the ocular tissues occurs at similar times of…

Endocrine Alex V. Levin Thomas W. Wilson Robert Pashby The pituitary gland is responsible for regulating hormonal activity within the body. Abnormalities of the pituitary gland may lead to hormonal…

Iris and Pupils Alex V. Levin Thomas W. Wilson J. Raymond Buncic David Rootman The iris is formed during ocular development by an extension of the optic vesicle (neuroectoderm) forward…

Orbit Alex V. Levin Thomas W. Wilson Dan DeAngelis Robert Pashby Jeffrey Hurwitz The orbit contains multiple tissues, each of which is subject to disease. A disease process in any…

Lens Alex V. Levin Thomas W. Wilson David Rootman The lens of the eye is derived from surface ectoderm, which invaginates into the optic vesicle during embryogenesis. This newly formed…

Chromosomes Nasrin Najm-Tehrani Alex V. Levin The genetic information in each cell is in the form of DNA, the majority of which is in the nucleus as chromosomes. A much…

Glaucoma Alex V. Levin J. Raymond Buncic Elise Héon Glaucoma may manifest at any time during childhood. Congenital and infantile glaucoma usually involves a primary dysgenesis of the trabecular meshwork…

Conjunctiva Alex V. Levin Thomas W. Wilson David Rootman Jerome Kazdan The conjunctiva is derived from surface ectoderm and has an important role in maintaining ocular surface integrity. Goblet cells…