9 Retina An outpost of the central nervous system (CNS), the retina is a colony of brain cells that is located in the periphery of the body where it is…

13 The Eyelid and Lacrimal Drainage System INTRODUCTION The eyelids are flaps of skin with highly modified epidermal appendages that cover and protect the eye. The structure of the eyelids…

6 Cornea and Sclera CORNEAL HISTOLOGY The cornea is the principal refractive element of the eye. Its anterior surface is covered by a layer of nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium five…

11 Intraocular Tumors in Adults MELANOCYTIC TUMORS OF THE UVEAL TRACT Introduction In adults, most intraocular tumors arise from, or involve the uveal tract, the eye’s middle coat composed of…

14 Orbit INTRODUCTION Orbital disease is relatively uncommon but quite diverse in nature. Inflammatory diseases, such as infectious cellulitis, and immunological disorders, such as thyroid ophthalmopathy and idiopathic orbital inflammation…

5 Conjunctiva The conjunctiva is a delicate mucous membrane that covers the anterior surface of the eyeball and the posterior surface of eyelids. The term conjunctiva is derived from the…

12 Retinoblastoma and Simulating Lesions Retinoblastoma is the most common intraocular tumor of childhood. In Asia, Africa, and South America, where uveal melanoma is relatively rare, it probably is the…

8 Glaucoma INTRODUCTION Visual loss in glaucoma is caused by the death of the retinal ganglion cells and their axons that constitute the nerve fiber layer of the retina and…

3 Inflammation INTRODUCTION During the evolutionary struggle for survival, a complex series of defense mechanisms (that we in its totality call inflammation) has evolved. The inflammatory response involves a variety…