(1) Charlotte Eye Ear Nose & Throat Associates, Charlotte, NC, USA Abstract Reviewing the preclinical science relevant to the mechanisms and risk factors for chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine retinopathy can…
(1) Charlotte Eye Ear Nose & Throat Associates, Charlotte, NC, USA Abstract Over 80 % of patients taking 4-aminoquinolines (4AQs) have risk factors for retinopathy. The most important risk…
(1) Charlotte Eye Ear Nose & Throat Associates, Charlotte, NC, USA Abstract In the United States, screening for 4-aminoquinoline retinopathy (4AQR) is the standard of care. In this environment,…
(1) Charlotte Eye Ear Nose & Throat Associates, Charlotte, NC, USA Abstract The 4-aminoquinolines are weak bases that are completely absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, sequestered in peripheral tissues,…
(1) Charlotte Eye Ear Nose & Throat Associates, Charlotte, NC, USA Abstract The 4-aminoquinolines are predictably toxic at high enough concentrations. Toxicity in all tissues derives from derangement of…
(1) Charlotte Eye Ear Nose & Throat Associates, Charlotte, NC, USA Abstract Lack of agreement in defining 4-aminoquinoline retinopathy has impeded progress in understanding and preventing the condition. There…
(1) Charlotte Eye Ear Nose & Throat Associates, Charlotte, NC, USA Abstract The prevalence of 4-aminoquinoline retinopathy has not been scientifically determined, but flawed data indicate that the prevalence…
(1) Charlotte Eye Ear Nose & Throat Associates, Charlotte, NC, USA Abstract Screening for 4-aminoquinoline retinopathy (4AQR) became common internationally in the 1960s when inappropriately high doses of chloroquine…
Figure 23.1 Normal skin anatomy. Note that there are important differences between the “normal” skin seen in this diagram and that of the eyelid; eyelid skin is the thinnest in the…
Figure 30.1 Lacrimal drainage system embryology. A, At 6 weeks’ gestation, a solid cord of ectoderm is formed between the primitive medial canthus and nose. B, At 12 weeks’ gestation, the…
