Peripheral Retinal Disease
Peripheral Retinal Disease James F. Vander Retinal Break or Tear Retinal break or tear describes a full-thickness defect in the retina, generally in the retinal periphery, although the break may…
Retinal Vascular Disease
Retinal Vascular Disease Gary C. Brown Cotton-Wool Spots Cotton-wool spots describe the retinal change resulting from acute blockage of blood flow within a terminal retinal arteriole. Epidemiology and Etiology The…
Diabetic Retinopathy
Diabetic Retinopathy James F. Vander Diabetic Retinopathy Diabetic retinopathy encompasses a broad range of fundus manifestations of diabetes mellitus. This is a clinical term that includes exudative, hemorrhagic, ischemic, proliferative,…
Retinal Degenerations and Dystrophies
Retinal Degenerations and Dystrophies Mithlesh C. Sharma Allen C. Ho Best’s Disease Best’s disease, also known as vitelliform macular dystrophy, is a macular dystrophy that is clinically characterized by an…
Macular Diseases
Macular Diseases Nikolas J.S. London Mitchell S. Fineman Macular Epiretinal Membrane Macular epiretinal membrane is an acquired formation of a semitransparent fibrocellular membrane in the macula. Epidemiology and Etiology Macular…
Traumatic and Toxic Retinopathies
Traumatic and Toxic Retinopathies J. Luigi Borrillo Carl D. Regillo Commotio Retinae Commotio retinae is retinal whitening that occurs after blunt ocular trauma. This transient condition affects the outer retina….
Retinal and Choroidal Tumors
Retinal and Choroidal Tumors Franco M. Recchia Astrocytic Hamartoma Astrocytic hamartoma is a congenital, minimally progressive, benign tumor arising from the glial cells of the retina and usually located around…
Optic Nerve Disorders
Optic Nerve Disorders Optic neuropathies are generally classified as anterior, those in which the optic nerve head is swollen, and posterior, those in which there is decreased optic nerve function…
Age-Related Macular Degeneration
Age-Related Macular Degeneration Allen C. Ho Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) describes a common degenerative condition of the retina that may affect central vision. By definition, it occurs in individuals 50…
Ocular Misalignment and Other Ocular Motor Disorders
Ocular Misalignment and Other Ocular Motor Disorders CRANIAL NERVE III PALSY (OCULOMOTOR NERVE) Cranial nerve III (CN III) innervates the superior, inferior, medial recti, and the inferior oblique muscles. It…
