Overview of Sensory Changes in Strabismus
Binocular Sensory Changes in Strabismus Diplopia and Confusion Diplopia occurs when a patient sees two images of one object. Fig. 12.1 A represents an adult with recent onset left esotropia….
Anisometropia and Aniseikonia
Binocular vision can be disturbed by large differences in the refractive error between the two eyes: anisometropia . When this is left uncorrected, central suppression areas can develop in the…
Evaluation of Heterophoria
Introduction A heterophoria only requires treatment if it is causing symptoms or impaired performance, if the binocular status is likely to deteriorate if it is not treated, or if the…
Hyperphoria and Cyclophoria
Hyperphoria is a potential deviation of one eye upwards which becomes an actual deviation when the two eyes are dissociated, and which recovers when the dissociating factors are removed. In…
Exophoric Conditions
Although it has been shown that divergence is actively stimulated ( Breinin, 1957 ), exophoria appears to be a much more passive condition than esophoria. There are several potential explanations…
Esophoric Conditions
Most esophoria is ‘accommodative’, in that it largely results from excessive accommodation due to uncorrected hypermetropia or prolonged close work. As a result of the accommodation/convergence linkage, the overactive accommodation…
Management of Heterophoria: Basic Principles
Before dealing with the individual heterophoric conditions in the next three chapters, this chapter outlines the basic principles of management. There are two reasons to treat a heterophoria: to alleviate…
Binocular Instability
A heterophoria is compensated when the vergence system can adequately overcome the heterophoria. Yet there are subjects with a negligible heterophoria and whose opposing fusional reserves meet the conventional criteria…
Detecting Binocular Vision Anomalies in Primary Eyecare Practice
Introduction The routine for examining the eyes and vision of every patient in primary eyecare should have three objectives: to detect the presence of anomalies, indicate when further investigative tests…
Examination of Young Children
Objectives In examining the eyes and vision of preschool children, under the age of 4–5 years, the approach and method should be modified from the routine appropriate to older children…
