Fig. 1.1 (a) Normal precorneal tear film stained evenly green with fluorescein. (b–c) Surface elevations (arrows) appear dark. (d–e) show abnormal epithelial structures (white arrows) located below an elevated (dark,…
Fig. 4.1 (a–c) Fine granular pattern of intracellular edema (white arrowheads) and (a, c) variously large blisters (black arrowheads). The yellow-brown spots in (b) are caused by fluorescein pooling presumably…
Fig. 5.1 (a) Survey of a part of a very large bulla (arrows) (captured on day 2). The areas in frame are shown in (b, c): the bulla (arrows) is…
Fig. 3.1 (a) A larger lesion (arrow) containing many rounded bodies (arrowhead) and a small adjacent one (double arrowhead). (b) Some parts of the lesion (bowed arrow), the adjacent one…
Fig. 6.1 Tertiary contraction of the esophagus. Uncoordinated contractions are seen in the mid to distal esophagus (arrows) Etiology Dysphagia may be caused (Table 6.1) by a neurological deficit, which…
Approach to Esophageal Swallowing Disorder Dysphagia, odynophagia, retrosternal chest pain, regurgitation, and heartburn are the major symptoms of esophageal disorders. In oropharyngeal dysphagia, there is inability to initiate swallow, nasopharyngeal…
Fig. 8.1 Gastroesophageal reflux Reflux occurs due to increased relaxation of lower esophageal sphincter allowing a spontaneous reflux or increased abdominal pressure (stress reflux). Whereas some reflux is normal, several…
Fig. 1.1 The oral cavity The oral cavity is the initial site for the processing of food. It extends from the lips to the pharynx. The oral cavity is divided…
Fig. 3.1 Algorithm for clinical diagnosis of dysphagia 4. Associated symptoms: Does patient cough or get chest pain associated with dysphagia? Dysphagia (for solids and liquids) with chest pain…
Fig. 2.1 Oral phase of swallowing: (a) the bolus is held between the anterior end of the tongue and the hard palate during the initiation of the oral phase and…
