8.6 Vascular Rings
10.1055/b-0038-162793 8.6 Vascular Rings Key Features The trachea and esophagus are completely or incompletely surrounded by vascular structures. Compression of the trachea, the bronchi, and/or the esophagus may occur. Most…
8.5 Tracheoesophageal Fistula and Esophageal Atresia
10.1055/b-0038-162792 8.5 Tracheoesophageal Fistula and Esophageal Atresia Key Features Tracheoesophageal fistula (TEF) and esophageal atresia (EA) are the result of a congenital communication between the trachea and esophagus. EA is…
8.4 Laryngeal Clefts
10.1055/b-0038-162791 8.4 Laryngeal Clefts Key Features Laryngeal clefts are a rare congenital anomaly. They are frequently associated with other anomalies. Clinical presentation varies with the extent of the cleft. The…
8.3 Bilateral Vocal Fold Paralysis
10.1055/b-0038-162790 8.3 Bilateral Vocal Fold Paralysis Key Features Bilateral vocal fold paralysis is the second most common cause of infantile stridor. It typically requires a tracheotomy for maintenance of airway…
8.2 Laryngomalacia
10.1055/b-0038-162789 8.2 Laryngomalacia Key Features Laryngomalacia is the most common cause of stridor in infants (accounts for ~ 75% of infantile stridor). Often self-limited; most patients are symptom-free by 12…
8.1 Pediatric Airway Evaluation and Management
10.1055/b-0038-162788 8.1 Pediatric Airway Evaluation and Management Key Features The airway is relatively narrower and more tenuous in children. The potential for airway emergency is high. Many conditions causing respiratory…
7.12 Calcium Disorders
10.1055/b-0038-162787 7.12 Calcium Disorders Key Features Hypercalcemia can result when too much calcium enters the extracellular fluid or when there is insufficient calcium excretion from the kidneys. Hypocalcemia is less…
7.11 Hypoparathyroidism
10.1055/b-0038-162786 7.11 Hypoparathyroidism Key Features Hypoparathyroidism is caused by low circulating levels of parathyroid hormone or insensitivity to its action. The most common causes are iatrogenic (surgery) and autoimmunity. Etiology…
7.10 Hyperparathyroidism
10.1055/b-0038-162785 7.10 Hyperparathyroidism Key Features Hyperparathyroidism is caused by an excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH). Hyperparathyroidism is usually subdivided into primary, secondary, and tertiary hyperparathyroidism. Hyperparathyroidism results in elevated…
7.9 Embryology, Anatomy, and Physiology of the Parathyroid Glands
10.1055/b-0038-162784 7.9 Embryology, Anatomy, and Physiology of the Parathyroid Glands There are four parathyroid glands (in two pairs), usually close to the upper and lower poles of the thyroid lobe….
