Monte Stavis and Maham Khan Summary Torsion is an under-recognized component of strabismus. Measurement of torsion is integral to accurate diagnosis of strabismus, and torsional correction is critical to optimize…

Irene Ludwig Summary The superior oblique is a complex muscle that primarily exerts an intorsional force to the eye, secondarily depresses the eye in adduction, and has a small abducting…

Helen Song and Donny Suh Summary Brown’s syndrome, a rare congenital or acquired form of superior oblique tendon dysfunction, presents as difficulty elevating or inability to elevate the affected eye…

David Stager Jr. and David Stager Sr. Summary Dysfunction of the inferior oblique (IO) extraocular muscle, whether underaction or overaction, can be remedied with proper examination, diagnosis, and surgical planning…

Alan Scott, Seyhan B. Oezkan, and Talita Namgalies Summary Botulinum toxin type A (BTXA) injection is an effective alternative to muscle weakening surgery for strabismus in adults and children. The…

Christiaan Marshall Heersink and Irene Ludwig Summary Connective tissue and its collagen support are critical to the functioning of the extraocular muscles, intrinsically within the muscles themselves, as well as…

Malcolm Ing Summary Infections following strabismus surgery may be mild (conjunctivitis), moderate (orbital cellulitis), or severe (endophthalmitis). Although rare, orbital cellulitis and endophthalmitis may result in vision loss—a potentially devastating…

Irene Ludwig Summary The overuse of tests and consultants is a common problem in medicine, and the strabismus field is no exception. This may cost the patient time, possible unwarranted…

Robert Clark Summary Current surgical approaches overemphasize repositioning the tendinous insertions of the extraocular muscles (EOMs), neglecting key concepts about EOM anatomy that provide the foundation for both innovations in…