Introduction Nystagmus is an eye movement disorder characterised by abnormal, involuntary rhythmic oscillations of one or both eyes, initiated by a slow phase ( Self et al., 2020 ). Jerk…

The previous chapters have described techniques that can be used to investigate and treat strabismus. This chapter provides a clinical guide on how these methods should be applied to different…

When to Treat Comitant Strabismus The first stage in the investigation of strabismus is to discover whether there is any pathological cause for the strabismus. If pathology is present, the…

Amblyopia Definition Hippocrates in 400 BCE described amblyopia as ‘when the doctor and patient see nothing’ ( Day, 1997 ). Lyle and Wybar (1967) defined amblyopia as ‘a condition of…

The preceding chapters on various heterophoric anomalies have described the general outlines for the management of these conditions. This chapter gives details of particular exercises which may be fitted into…

Binocular Sensory Changes in Strabismus Diplopia and Confusion Diplopia occurs when a patient sees two images of one object. Fig. 12.1 A represents an adult with recent onset left esotropia….

Binocular vision can be disturbed by large differences in the refractive error between the two eyes: anisometropia . When this is left uncorrected, central suppression areas can develop in the…

Introduction A heterophoria only requires treatment if it is causing symptoms or impaired performance, if the binocular status is likely to deteriorate if it is not treated, or if the…

Hyperphoria is a potential deviation of one eye upwards which becomes an actual deviation when the two eyes are dissociated, and which recovers when the dissociating factors are removed. In…