Cornea and Sclera CORNEAL HISTOLOGY The cornea is the principal refractive element of the eye (Fig. 1-8). Its anterior surface is covered by a layer of non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium…

Conjunctiva The conjunctiva is a delicate mucous membrane that covers the anterior surface of the eyeball and the posterior surface of eyelids. The term conjunctiva is derived from the Latin…

Ocular Trauma Many eyes that are enucleated have a past history of nonsurgical or surgical trauma. The eye can be totally destroyed by severe injuries that violate the integrity of…

Inflammation INTRODUCTION During the evolutionary struggle for survival, a complex series of defense mechanisms (that we in its totality call inflammation) has evolved. The inflammatory response involves a variety of…

Congenital and Developmental Anomalies Congenital anomalies are developmental disorders that are present at birth. Congenital malformations are caused by chromosomal abnormalities, mutant genes, and major environmental factors such as infections,…

An Introduction to Ocular Anatomy and Histology A paired, hollow, spherical organ, the human eye is slightly less than an inch in diameter (Fig. 1-1A). Internally, it is divided into…