Cornea and Sclera
Cornea and Sclera CORNEAL HISTOLOGY The cornea is the principal refractive element of the eye (Fig. 1-8). Its anterior surface is covered by a layer of non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium…
Conjunctiva
Conjunctiva The conjunctiva is a delicate mucous membrane that covers the anterior surface of the eyeball and the posterior surface of eyelids. The term conjunctiva is derived from the Latin…
Ocular Trauma
Ocular Trauma Many eyes that are enucleated have a past history of nonsurgical or surgical trauma. The eye can be totally destroyed by severe injuries that violate the integrity of…
Inflammation
Inflammation INTRODUCTION During the evolutionary struggle for survival, a complex series of defense mechanisms (that we in its totality call inflammation) has evolved. The inflammatory response involves a variety of…
Congenital and Developmental Anomalies
Congenital and Developmental Anomalies Congenital anomalies are developmental disorders that are present at birth. Congenital malformations are caused by chromosomal abnormalities, mutant genes, and major environmental factors such as infections,…
An Introduction to Ocular Anatomy and Histology
An Introduction to Ocular Anatomy and Histology A paired, hollow, spherical organ, the human eye is slightly less than an inch in diameter (Fig. 1-1A). Internally, it is divided into…
Conclusion
Conclusion Several factors can help to differentiate between glaucomatous and nonglaucomatous optic neuropathy.1,2,3 Glaucomatous optic neuropathy is associated with: Older age. Elevated intraocular pressures. Thinner pachymetry. Visual acuity better than…
Retinal Nerve Fiber Layer Defects
Retinal Nerve Fiber Layer Defects Overview The retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) is composed of retinal ganglion cell axons that are covered by astrocytes and bundled by Muller cell processes.1…
Retinal Arteriole Diameter
Retinal Arteriole Diameter Overview Progressive optic nerve damage (glaucomatous or nonglaucomatous) is associated with focal narrowing of the retinal arterioles and is proportional to the stage of the optic neuropathy.1,2,3…
Parapapillary Chorioretinal Atrophy
Parapapillary Chorioretinal Atrophy Overview Parapapillary atrophy (PPA)1 is more frequently observed in patients with glaucoma than in those with ocular hypertension and normal individuals.2,3 The incidence of PPA has been…
