Facial Nerve and Muscle Anatomy
Introduction The facial nerve, also known as the seventh cranial nerve, combines motor, general sensory, special sensory, and autonomic (visceral) components. The intricate course of the facial nerve as it…
Etiology, Epidemiology, and Pathophysiology of Post-Facial Paralysis Synkinesis
The neural activity responsible for voluntary facial expression relies on an intricate set of interconnections distributed across multiple cortical facial motor areas, the amygdala, and other subcortical areas. The target…
Exoscopic surgery of lateral skull base
8.1 Introduction Literature includes some studies about the use of an exoscope in neurosurgery, either as an exclusive instrument or in combination with the microscope. The use of the operative…
Exoscope application in free flap head and neck reconstruction
12.1 Introduction of 3D exoscopes in reconstructive microsurgery Exoscopic technology was first introduced in free flap reconstruction in 2017. In particular, Piatkowski et al. described their experience in breast reconstruction with…
3D exoscopic parotidectomy
10.1 Introduction Benign parotid tumors have historically been treated by parotidectomy focused on the complete resection of the neoplasm with facial nerve preservation. Parotid masses were formerly managed via surgical…
Exoscope-assisted thyroid surgery
11.1 Technological advancements in thyroid and parathyroid surgery At the beginning of the 21st century, technological advancements in thyroid and parathyroid surgery served to obtain better cosmetics results and lower…
The application of the exoscope in lacrimal surgery
9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Anatomy and physiology of the lacrimal drainage apparatus The lacrimal drainage apparatus is a system that carries tears, produced by the lacrimal gland, from the ocular surface…
Exoscope-assisted middle ear surgery
7.1 Historical background In ear surgery, optical magnification and stereopsis are essential in identifying anatomical structures and performing surgical procedures safely and successfully. The need for stereopsis and the importance…
Exoscope-assisted oropharyngeal surgery
6.1 Introduction The oropharynx is currently one of the most affected sites in head and neck oncology. Over the past 20 years, the incidence of oropharyngeal cancer has increased significantly,…
Exoscope-assisted submandibular salivary stones surgery
5.1 Historical background Salivary stones were extracted as far as before Renascence, as well as abscesses and ranulas. With corpse dissection from the mid-17th century, the increasing anatomic and functional…
