Clinical background Duane retraction syndrome is a congenital cranial dysinnervation disorder characterized by uni- or bilateral abduction deficit, narrowing of the palpebral fissure on adduction, and globe retraction with occasional…

Evolution has bestowed humans and other frontal-eyed foveate animals with considerable overlap of the visual fields from the right and left eye. This allows for binocular vision and stereopsis. The…

Clinical background Classification From a traditional clinical perspective, amblyopia is defined as a loss of visual acuity of three lines or more on a clinical letter chart that is not…

Overview Sebaceous cell carcinomas account for 1–5% of all eyelid malignancies and primarily affect older adults with a slight female gender bias. Despite representing a small fraction of all eyelid…

Albinism refers to a heterogeneous group of hypopigmentation disorders that share an absolute or relative inherited deficiency of the pigment melanin that leads to characteristic changes in the skin, hair,…

Overview Choroidal melanoma is the most common primary malignant intraocular tumor with an annual incidence in the USA of 0.8 cases per 100 000 population. Once metastasis becomes clinically apparent,…

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is an autosomal-dominant tumor predisposition syndrome in which affected children are prone to the development of low-grade astrocytic (glial) neoplasms along the optic pathway (optic pathway…

Clinical background Key symptoms and signs Phthisis bulbi represents an ocular end-stage disease of various causes and is defined by atrophy, shrinkage, and disorganization of the eyeball and intraocular contents…

Clinical background Graves’ disease (GD) was named for the Irish physician, Sir Robert James Graves (1797–1853), who first described the triad of hyperthyroidism, goiter, and exophthalmos. Graves’ hyperthyroidism is caused…

Clinical background Epidemiology Retinoblastoma is a tumor of the developing retina. It is the most common malignant ocular tumor in childhood, affecting approximately 1 in 20 000 live births. In…