The basic architecture, signal flow, and neurochemistry of signaling through the vertebrate retina is well understood: photoreceptors, bipolar cells (BCs), and retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are all thought to be…
Introduction Somatosensory innervation of the eye is provided by the peripheral axons of a small number of primary sensory neurons located in the trigeminal ganglion (TG). Most sensory axons enter…
Introduction The extraocular muscles (EOM) are a complex group of skeletal muscles located within the bony orbit. They function in a highly coordinated manner to perform conjugate eye movements, maintain…
Introduction The brain controls the eyes to ensure optimal visual acuity as we navigate our environment throughout our daily lives. First, we make voluntary eye movements to explore our visual…
Introduction Intraocular pressure (IOP) is an essential feature of the eye. It influences the shape and curvature of the globe, thus indirectly affecting the eye’s optical performance. The pressure is…
Introduction The predominant function of the retina is to transmit light impulse–converted nerve signals from the retina to the brain, thereby forming an interpreted image. Light waves initially enter the…
Introduction Several barriers protect the eye from exogenous compounds that may exert toxic reactions in the eye. These barriers can be classified anatomically into three groups. First, the eye is…
Introduction The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a monolayer of pigmented cells located between the light-sensitive photoreceptor outer segments and the fenestrated endothelium of the choriocapillaris. On both sides, specialized…
