Whenever the facial nerve is to be surgically exposed, several technical principles should be observed. First, a system for monitoring facial nerve function during the operation should be used.⁴ One of the simplest monitoring methods is visual observation during critical stages of the operation. Needle electromyography also can be used if the equipment is available. No matter which monitoring technique is used, it is essential that the side of the face on which the nerve is to be exposed be draped in a manner that allows visual observation. The patient’s forehead, eye, mouth, and chin should be visible. The endotracheal tube should be secured to the opposite side without taping on the side of the mouth to be observed. Towels drape the posterior, superior, and inferior margins; a fourth towel is placed along the anterior profile. An abdominal transparent plastic drape is placed over the face and operative area (Fig. 171-2). An observer can thus see the entire face during the procedure and determine whether any of the muscles move in response to surgical manipulation of the nerve. If the surgeon asks for observation during critical periods of the procedure, the circulating nurse is the best observer.

Figure 171-2. Plastic draping with exposure of hemiface allows visualization of facial movements in addition to electromyographic monitoring.

More precise intraoperative monitoring can be achieved using commercially available needle electromyographic systems (Fig. 171-3). Electromyographic needles are placed in the orbicularis oculi and orbicularis oris muscles, as shown in Figure 171-4. Stimulation of the facial nerve during the operation provides accurate localization of the nerve if the anatomy is distorted by a disease process or congenital abnormality. Constant current or constant voltage stimulators can be used. These systems allow auditory monitoring of facial nerve activity and alert the surgeon when the nerve has been stimulated. Auditory monitoring is especially useful during the removal of tumors adjacent to the facial nerve.

Figure 171-3. A popular commercially available nerve monitoring system. Stimulus intensity to the stimulator probe can be varied, as can the sensitivity of monitoring response.

Figure 171-4. Placement of electromyographic electrodes in orbicularis oculi and orbicularis oris muscles. Ground electrodes are placed in the procerus muscle.

Instrumentation is crucial to successful exposure of the facial nerve. The largest diamond burr that the operative site can safely accommodate should be used when the operator is near the fallopian canal. Cutting burrs have a tendency to catch and jump unexpectedly, with the potential to cause severe injury to the nerve. Continuous suction-irrigation keeps the burr clean and also dissipates heat, which can induce neural damage.

The final layer of bone over the nerve should be removed by blunt elevators designed for this purpose. These instruments are thin but strong enough to remove a thin layer of bone. Stapes curettes usually are too large and can cause compression injury to the nerve. If neurolysis is to be performed, disposable microblades are available (Beaver No. 59-10). Sharp dissection is less traumatic than blunt elevation when the nerve must be lifted out of the fallopian canal. The medial surface of the nerve usually adheres to the bone and contains a rich vascular supply. Cauterization near the nerve should be performed only with bipolar electrocautery and insulated microforceps.

Surgical Approaches

Retrolabyrinthine Approach: Brainstem to Internal Auditory Canal Porus

Technique

The patient is positioned on an operating table similar to that used for a mastoidectomy. Endotracheal anesthesia is administered, and the anesthetist is positioned at the foot of the table, allowing the surgical nurse to be opposite the surgeon. The hair is removed 4 cm superiorly and postauricularly, and the ear and the left lower abdominal quadrant (for the harvest of fat if necessary) are prepared and draped. An osmotic diuretic (250 mL of 20% mannitol) is administered intravenously at the start of the skin incision. The skin incision is made in the hairline 3 to 4 cm posterior to the postauricular crease and extended down over the mastoid tip (Fig. 171-5). Posterior placement of the skin incision provides access for occipital bone removal, which is necessary for posterior retraction of the sigmoid sinus.⁵

Figure 171-5. Skin incision for the retrolabyrinthine surgical approach.

A complete mastoidectomy is performed. In addition, bone is removed over the sigmoid sinus from the sinodural angle to its most inferior extent. The dome of the jugular bulb also is identified. A large diamond burr and suction-irrigation are essential to prevent injury to the sinus and the posterior fossa dura. The cerebellar plate is removed from the tegmen mastoideum to the jugular bulb. Anteromedially, the posterior semicircular canal is identified, and inferior to the labyrinth (retrofacial area) the endolymphatic sac is exposed (Fig. 171-6). In a well-aerated mastoid, 2 to 3 mm of bone can be removed between the posterior semicircular canal and the cerebellar dura with the use of small diamond burrs. If the posterior canal is not evident, it should be blue-lined to locate its exact position.

Figure 171-6. Exposure obtained through the left retrolabyrinthine approach before retraction and dural incision, as viewed by the surgeon.

An anteriorly based trapdoor cerebellar dural flap is fashioned with a sharp microscalpel and microscissors (Fig. 171-7). Care should be taken not to injure the small cerebellar arachnoid vessels when the dura is opened. A cuff of dura should be left adjacent to the bony margins, sigmoid sinus, and superior petrosal sinus for placement of sutures during closure. Sutures placed at the corners of the dural flap serve to retract it anteriorly. A malleable self-retaining retractor is used to retract the sigmoid sinus posteriorly. The cerebellum usually falls away from the temporal bone, and minimal, if any, retraction is required. Hyperventilation, in addition to an osmotic diuretic, is useful in obtaining brain shrinkage.

Figure 171-7. Dural incision for left retrolabyrinthine exposure.

The cochleovestibular facial nerve complex is seen 2 to 3 mm inferior and parallel to Donaldson’s line (a line extending posterior from the plane of the lateral semicircular canal). The arachnoid is incised sharply, releasing the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the cistern. Other visible nerves are the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V) superiorly and the glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX) and possibly the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) inferiorly (Fig. 171-8). Visualization of cranial nerve VII may be completely blocked by cranial nerve VIII. Cranial nerve VII usually arises 1.5 mm directly anterior to cranial nerve VIII. A Buckingham mirror aids identification of the facial nerve. The rostral division of the AICA may pass between cranial nerves VII and VIII, along with one or more veins. Approximately 15 mm of the nerve can be inspected in the cerebellopontine cistern.

Figure 171-8. Left retrolabyrinthine exposure after retraction of the dural flap. AICA, anterior inferior cerebellar artery; CN, cranial nerve.

At the end of the procedure, care should be taken to achieve watertight closure of the dura. Strips of abdominal fat (5 mm × 4 cm) are harvested from a lower abdominal incision, placed subdurally, and incorporated into the suture line. Braided nylon (4-0) sutures are used for closure of the dura. Fat can be placed in the mastoid but should not block the aditus or interfere with the ossicles. The subcutaneous tissues are closed in layers. A mastoid compression dressing is placed.

Retrosigmoid Approach

Technique

Another option for exposure of the facial nerve from the brainstem to the internal auditory canal is through a small retrosigmoid craniotomy. The preparation and incision are similar to those in the retrolabyrinthine approach (see Fig. 171-5). Instead of a complete mastoidectomy, the bone over the sigmoid sinus is removed to identify the posterior margin of the sinus. Bone is removed 4 cm posterior to the sigmoid sinus, exposing the posterior fossa dura (Fig. 171-9). The outline of the transverse sinus is exposed superiorly. A curvilinear incision in the posterior fossa dura is created to expose the cerebellum (Fig. 171-10). Care is taken to incise the dura without injuring the arteries and veins on the cerebellum. Cottonoid sponges lined with rubber glove strips are placed on the cerebellum. Slow, gentle retraction of the cerebellum over 5 to 10 minutes allows exposure of the posterior fossa face of temporal bone and internal auditory canal. Once the cerebellum has been slowly retracted, no external retraction is necessary. The cerebellum should fall away from the temporal bone, allowing viewing of the flocculus, choroid plexus, and the cranial nerve VII and VIII bundle (Fig. 171-11). The posterior lip of the internal auditory canal porus can be removed for additional lateral exposure, but the position of the posterior semicircular canal and its relationship to the posterior lip of the porus acusticus should be ascertained by CT.

Figure 171-9. Retrosigmoid craniotomy. The skin flap is reflected anteriorly, exposing the mastoid and the cerebellar cortical bone. Craniotomy (approximately 4 × 4 cm), exposing the sigmoid sinus (S) anteriorly, transverse sinus (T) superiorly, and cerebellar dura (C).

Figure 171-10. A dural incision (2 to 3 cm long) can be linear or curvilinear. Here, 4-0 Neurolon suture retracts the anterior leaf of the dural incision.

Figure 171-11. Retrosigmoid exposure. The cerebellum has been retracted from the cerebellar plate of the temporal bone (TB), exposing the neurovascular bundle (N). Cranial nerve VII is directly deep and slightly cephalic to cranial nerve VIII.

Advantages and Uses

The retrolabyrinthine and retrosigmoid approaches provide access to the facial nerve in the cerebellopontine angle without sacrificing inner ear function. These approaches have an advantage over the routine suboccipital approach in that minimal or no cerebellar compression is needed. The procedure can be used in combination with middle fossa exposure for tumor removal and grafting of cranial nerve VII near the brainstem. For facial nerve surgery, the retrolabyrinthine technique is most commonly used in some practices for vascular decompression in hemifacial spasm. The AICA, posterior inferior cerebellar artery, and accompanying veins can be easily manipulated through this approach.

Limitations and Potential Complications

Visualization of the facial nerve often is hampered by the location of cranial nerve VIII. Gentle separation of the nerves with a blunt instrument can be accomplished but is associated with increased potential for hearing loss or vestibular complications. Because of the compromised exposure, management of any intracranial vascular complications is limited. If an intracranial complication occurs, rapid removal of suboccipital bone, in combination with a retrosigmoid dural opening, provides additional access.

CSF leakage is a potential problem with this approach, but careful dural reapproximation and use of subdural fat strips have decreased the incidence of this complication.

Middle Cranial Fossa (Transtemporal) Approach: Internal Auditory Canal Porus to Tympanic Segment

The middle cranial fossa approach ⁶ is used to expose the internal auditory canal and labyrinthine segments of the facial nerve when preservation of existing auditory function is desirable. The geniculate ganglion and tympanic portions of the nerve also can be decompressed using this approach.

Technique

The patient is placed supine on the operating table with the head turned so that the involved temporal bone is upward. The hair is shaved 6 to 8 cm above and anterior to the ear and 2 cm posterior to it. The surgeon is seated at the head of the table, with the instrument nurse at the anterior aspect of the patient’s head.

A 6 cm × 8 cm posteriorly based trapdoor incision is marked in the hairline above the ear (Fig. 171-12). If exposure of the mastoid is necessary, the inferior limb of the incision can be extended postauricularly. The skin flap is elevated to expose the temporalis muscle. A 4 cm × 4 cm temporalis fascia graft is harvested for use during closure of the internal auditory canal dural defect. An anteriorly based trapdoor incision is used to elevate the temporalis muscle and periosteum. Staggering the levels of the muscle and skin incisions provides for a double-layer watertight closure at the end of the procedure.