Ethnicity
Country
Project
Age range (years)
Participation rate (%)
No. samples
Myopia (<−0.5 diopters)
Myopia (<−1.0D)
High myopia (<−5 D)
High myopia (<−6 D)
Caucasian
USA
Baltimore Eye Survey [24]
40 ≤
79.2
2,659
24.1
16.8
2.6
1.9
Caucasian
USA
Beaver Dam Eye Study [25]
43–86
83.1
4,926
26.2
26.5
3.8
Caucasian
USA
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey [26]
20 <
84.5
12,010
41.0
33.1
6.0
Caucasian
Australia
Blue Mountain Eye Study [27]
49 ≤
82.4
3,654
15.5
12.6
1.8
Caucasian
The Netherlands
Rotterdam Study [28]
55–95
79.7
5,673
17.6
4.0
Caucasian
Australia
Melbourne Visual Impairment Project [29]
40≤
83
3,271
16.9
15.8
2.5
Caucasian
Germany
Gutenberg Health Study [30]
35–74
92.9
13,959
35.1
26.2
3.5
Mongolian
Mongolia
(Hovsgol) [31]
40 ≤
1,617
17.2
2.7
Japanese
Japan
Tajimi Study [32]
40 ≤
78.1
3,120
41.8
32.5
8.1
5.5
Chinese
Taiwan
Shihpai Eye Study [33]
65 ≤
66.6
1,361
19.4
15.0
2.4
Chinese
China
Beijing Eye Study [34]
40–101
83.4
4,319
21.8
16.9
3.3
2.6
Chinese
China
Handan Eye Study [35]
30 ≤
85.9
6,491
26.7
1.8
Korean
Korea
Namil Study [36]
40 ≤
1,215
20.5
1.0
Chinese
Singapore
Tanjong Pagar Study [37]
40–79
71.8
1,232
38.7
28.0
6.9
Chinese
China
Liwan Study [19]
50 ≤
1,269
32.3
Malaysian
Singapore
Singapore Malay Eye Survey [38]
40–80
78.7
3,280
30.5
20.0
3.9
Indonesian
Indonesia
Sumatora [39]
41 ≤
358
34.1
26.1
1.7
Indian
India
Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study [40]
40 ≤
85.4
2,522
34.6
4.5
Indian
Singapore
Singapore Indian Eye study [41]
40
75.6
3,400
28.0
20.4
4.1
Indian
India
Central India Eye and Medical Study [42]
30<
83.1
5,885
17.0
13.0
1.8
0.9
Burmese
Myanmar
Meiktila Eye Study [43]
40 ≤
75.1
1,863
50.9
42.7
6.5
Indian
India
Chennai Glaucoma Study (rural) [44]
40 ≤
81.8
3,924
36.5
Indian
India
Chennai Glaucoma Study (urban) [45]
40 ≤
80.2
3,850
23.2
Iranian
Iran
The Yazd Eye Study [46]
90.4
2,098
36.5
2.3
Bengalese
Bangladesh
Bangladesh National Blindness and Low vision Survey [47]
30 ≤
90.9
1,1624
22.1
12.5
1.8
Hispanic
USA
Proyecto VER [48]
40 <
72
4,774
18.0
2.5
Hispanic
USA
Los Angeles Latino Eye Study [49]
40 ≤
82
6,357
16.8
2.4
Hispanic
Spain
Segovia Study [50]
40–79
89.6
510
25.4
Black
USA
Baltimore Eye Survey [24]
40 ≤
79.2
2,200
20.9
0.9
Afro-Caribbean
West Indies
Barbados Eye Study [51]
40–84
84
4,036
21.9
1.3 Prevalence of POAG
The prevalence rates of POAG reported in various countries are summarized in Table 1.2. The prevalence rates of POAG, which seem to be much less dependent on environmental factors than myopia, also differ among ethnic groups, i.e., African-American populations have the highest prevalence rates followed by Hispanic and Japanese populations. The prevalence rates of POAG generally are relatively low in Caucasians.
Table 1.2
Prevalence of OAG and NTG: summary data from previous population-based studies
Ethnicity | Country | Project | Age range (years) | Prevalence of OAG (crude) | NTG/OAG (%) | Prevalence of NTG (%) (crude) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Caucasian | UK | (Hollows and Graham) [52] | 40–74 | 0.4 | 35.0 | 0.2 |
Caucasian | Ireland | Roscommon Glaucoma Survey [53] | 50 ≤ | 1.9 | 36.6 | 0.7 |
Caucasian | USA | Baltimore Eye Survey [54] | 40 ≤ | 1.4 | ||
Caucasian | USA | Beaver Dam Eye Study [55] | 43–86 | 2.1 | 32.0 | |
Caucasian | Australia | Blue Mountain Eye Study [56] | 59 ≤ | 3.0 | ||
Caucasian | The Netherlands | Rotterdam Study [57] | 55–95 | 1.1 | 39.0 | 0.4 |
Caucasian | Italy | Casteldaccia Eye Study [58] | 40 ≤ | 1.2 | 38.5 | |
Caucasian | Italy | Egna-Neumarkt Study [59] | 40 ≤ | 2.0 | 28.6 | 0.6 |
Caucasian | Australia | Melbourne Visual Impairment Project [60] | 40 ≤ | 1.8 | 1.4 | |
Mongolian | Mongolia | (Hovsgol) [61] | 40 ≤ | 0.4 | ||
Mongolian | Mongolia | Kailu [62] | 40 < | 1.4 | 64.0 | 0.9 |
Japanese | Japan | Japan nationwide [12] | 40 < | 2.5 | 79.0 | 2.0 |
Japanese | Japan | Tajimi Study [63] | 40 ≤ | 3.9 | 92.3 | 3.6 |
Japanese | Japan | Kumejima Study [64] | 40 ≤ | 4.0 | 82.1 | 3.3 |
Korean | Korea | Namil Study [65] | 50 ≤ | 3.6 | 77.8 | 2.8 |
Chinese | China | Beijing Eye Study [66] | 40–101 | 2.5 | ||
Chinese | China | Handan Eye Study [67] | 30 < | 1.2 | 90.0 | 1.0 |
Chinese | China | Liwan Study [68] | 50–102 | 2.1 | 85.0 | 1.8 |
Chinese | Singapore | Tanjong Pagar Study [69] | 40–79 | 1.2 | ||
Malay | Singapore | Singapore Malay Eye Survey [70] | 40–80 | 2.5 | 84.6 | 2.7 |
Bengalese | Bangladesh | Bangladesh Study [71] | 35 ≤ | 1.2 | ||
Thai | Thailand | (Rom Klao) [72] | 50 ≤ | 2.3 | ||
Indian | India | Aravind Comprehensive Eye Survey [73] | 40 ≤ | 1.2 | 75.0 | 0.9 |
Indian | India | Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study (rural) [14] | 40 ≤ | 1.6 | 63.0 | 1.0 |
Indian | India | West Bengal Glaucoma Study [74] | 50 ≤ | 3.4 | ||
Indian | India | Chennai Glaucoma Study (rural) [75] | 40 < | 1.6 | 67.2 | 1.1 |
Indian | India | Chennai Glaucoma Study (urban) [75] | 40 ≤ | 3.5 | 82.0 | 2.9 |
Indian | Singapore | Singapore Indian Eye Study [76] | 40 | 1.3 | 82.6 | 1.1 |
Burmese | Myanmar | Meiktila Eye Study [77] | 50 ≤ | 2.0 | ||
Hispanic | USA | Proyecto VER [78] | 40 < | 2.0 | 80.0 | 1.6 |
Hispanic | USA | Los Angeles Latino Eye Study [79] | 40 ≤ | 4.7 | 82.0 | 3.9 |
Hispanic | Spain | Segovia Study [80] | 40–79 | 2.0 | ||
Multiethnic | South Africa | (Western Cape) [81] | 40 ≤ | 1.5 | ||
Multiethnic | West Indies | Barbados Eye Study [82] | 40–84 | 7.1 | ||
Black | West Indies | (St Lucia) [83] | 30 ≤ | 8.8 | 36.0 | |
Black | USA | Baltimore Eye Survey [54] | 40 ≤ | 4.2 | ||
Black | Tanzania | (Kongwa District) [84] | 40 ≤ | 3.1 | 75.0 | |
Black | South Africa | (KwaZulu-Natal) [85] | 40 ≤ | 2.8 | 57.1 | 1.6 |
1.4 Relationship Between Intraocular Pressure and Refraction
Needless to say, high intraocular pressure (IOP) is a definitive risk factor for POAG. As summarized in Table 1.3, the distribution of IOP values also differs among ethnic groups with African-American and Caucasian populations having relatively higher mean values. Unexpectedly, there is a paucity of information on the relationship between refraction and IOP. In two population-based studies performed by the Japan Glaucoma Society (Tajimi Study and Kumejima Study), higher myopia was associated significantly with higher IOP [10, 11], which also agreed with the results reported in a large Japanese study [12] and a population-based study performed in Northern China (Beijing Eye Study) [13].
Table 1.3
IOP: summary of previous population-based studies
Ethnicity | Country | Study | Age range (years) | IOP |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Caucasian | United Kingdom | (Hollows and Graham) [52] | 40–74 | 15.9 |
Caucasian | Ireland | Roscommon Glaucoma Survey [53] | 50 ≤ | 14.6 |
Caucasian | USA | Baltimore Eye Survey [86] | 40 ≤ | 17.2 |
Caucasian
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