Epithelial Epidermoid Tumors: Part I
Benign Epidermoid Tumors
Squamous papillomas of the nasal vestibule
Everted squamous papilloma ICD-O 8121/1
Cylindrical cell papilloma
Inverted papilloma ICD-O 8121/1
Squamous Papillomas of the Nasal Vestibule
These lesions are very common and can occur at any age. They occur equally in men and women. Small, solitary cauliflower-like pedunculated lesions, they are similar to verrucous warts elsewhere in the body. They may be viral in origin and have been reported as undergoing spontaneous regression. They are composed of exophytic squamous proliferation associated with marked proliferation. They do not undergo malignant change and are locally resected. However, if they recur, the area may need to be “cauterized” with a laser.
Papillomas of the Nasal Cavity and Paranasal Sinuses
These are usually divided into three types:
Everted
Cylindrical cell
Inverted
Originally it was thought that all papillomas had a similar derivation and they were often lumped together as “schneiderian” papilloma, but subsequent investigation suggests that they are three distinct entities.1 The term “schneiderian” refers to an anatomist, Victor Conrad Schneider, from the early 17th century. The sinonasal epithelium is derived from ectoderm, unlike the rest of the respiratory tract, which is endodermal and is sometimes referred to as “transitional” but should not be confused with urogenital epithelium. In fact, both terms (schneiderian and transitional) are best avoided. In 1847 Kramer used the term “papillae” to describe a cauliflower-like tumor of the mucous membrane.2 Billroth probably first described a true papilloma in the nasal cavity, but Ringetz described the inverting nature of a papilloma in 1938.3,4
Everted Squamous Papilloma
Definition
Wartlike exophytic or fungiform squamous papilloma.
Etiology
There has been some confusion in the literature due to the consideration of different types of papilloma, but on balance there is evidence that everted papillomas are associated with human papilloma virus (HPV) 6/115 and are regarded by some as a simple wart.
Synonyms
Exophytic, squamous, transitional, and fungiform are all sometimes applied to these papillomas.
Incidence and Site
Everted papillomas usually grow on the septum though are occasionally found on the lateral wall of the nose and rarely in the maxillary sinus. Overall they are rare in ENT, comprising only 6 cases compared with 114 inverted papillomas in our own series.
Diagnostic Features
Clinical
A unilateral warty lesion growing in the anterior nose is often visible and results in nasal obstruction (Fig. 6.1). The lesion is more common in men and at a slightly younger age than with other papillomas. There were 5 men and 1 woman in our group, average age 47.3 years (age range 40 to 59 years).
Imaging
Imaging is rarely undertaken due to the superficial and accessible nature of the lesions, but they have the nonspecific appearances of a benign soft tissue mass.
Histological Features and Differential Diagnosis
The exophytic pink lesions may have a firm, convoluted surface arising from a broad base and are characterized by numerous branching fronds of mucosa over a fibrovascular connective tissue core, covered by stratified squamous epithelium. Large cystic mucus-filled spaces can be seen throughout the epithelium and occasionally microabscesses.
They must be distinguished from papillary squamous cell carcinoma, from inverted and cylindrical papillomas, and also from the squamous papillomas that grow on vestibular skin, which are identical to those which occur elsewhere on the skin.
Natural History
The everted papillomas may recur but virtually never become malignant.
Treatment and Outcome
Surgical removal with a small cuff of normal mucosa is usually adequate to obtain cure. However, in one case report concerning an HIV-positive patient, a combination of surgery and topical cidofovir was employed.6
Cylindrical Cell Papilloma
Definition
A papilloma composed of papillae lined with columnar epithelium.
Etiology
These lesions are not associated with human papillomavirus.
Synonyms
Oncocytic schneiderian papilloma, columnar cell papilloma, transitional cell papilloma, microcystic papillary adenoma.
Incidence
This lesion constitutes only 5% of sinonasal papillomas, being less frequent than its inverted counterparts. In our cohort of papillomas, there were 10 cylindrical cell papillomas compared with 114 inverted lesions.
Site
The lesion is found on the lateral nasal wall or within a sinus cavity.
Diagnostic Features
Clinical
These papillomas are usually unilateral and are reportedly equally commonly in men and women; our cases included 7 men and 3 women. They are rarely found in children; most patients are in their fifth and sixth decades. It is often broad-based with a finely granular surface. Our 10 cases have a mean age of 60 years (range 39 to 82 years).
Imaging
There are no specific features.
Histological Features and Differential Diagnosis
There is a mixture of endophytic and exophytic features and the tumor is characterized by a columnar oncocytic epithelium due to finely granular eosinophilic cytoplasm together with numerous intraepithelial mucinous cysts. These are larger than those found in inverted papilloma. Goblet cells are not present but microabscesses are seen.
Natural History
The tumor can be associated with squamous cell carcinoma or mucoepidermoid carcinoma.7
Treatment and Outcome
Complete excision is not associated with recurrence but has been reported in up to one-third of cases. All of our cases underwent local endoscopic excision without recurrence over a 2- to 12-year follow-up.
Inverted Papilloma
Definition
Inverted papilloma (IP) is a relatively uncommon benign epithelial tumor of the nasal cavity that is notorious for recurrence and malignant transformation.
Etiology
The role of human papilloma virus (HPV) has been investigated in inverted papilloma and its DNA has been found in both the inverted papilloma and the cells of neighboring normal-appearing mucosa.8 This has led to the suggestion that all neighboring normal-appearing predisposed mucosa should be removed to reduce the rate of recurrence.9 HPV 6 and 11 have been linked to the aggression of the papilloma in terms of presence of dysplasia, carcinoma in situ, and recurrence.10 HPV57b has also been implicated in the etiology of the tumor.11 It has also been suggested that Epstein-Barr virus may play a role.12
A case–control study of risk factors associated with sinonasal inverted papilloma in 50 patients suggested that outdoor and industrial occupations were associated with IP development.13
Malignant Transformation
The exact cause of malignant transformation has yet to be identified. Tumors with HPV positivity have been shown to be associated with significantly increased epidermoid growth factor receptor (EGFR) and Ki-67 index and, in turn, elevated levels of EGFR and transforming growth factor-α (TGF-α) are associated with early carcinogenesis.14 Chao et al have also shown that EGFR is raised in IP both with and without malignant change compared with control tissue and proposed that this plays a role in malignant transformation.15 In a review of the literature in 2008, Lawson and colleagues found that higher rates of HPV detection were found in dysplastic IP and those associated with malignant change.16 Koo et al have recently shown that decreased expression of E-cadherin and β-catenin in the cell membrane may be associated with carcinogenesis of IP.17
Mutation of the p53 tumor suppressor gene has been implicated as a risk factor for malignant transformation18,19 and significantly increased staining of p21 and p53 has been observed in IP with severe dysplasia, carcinoma in situ, and frank carcinoma compared with normal controls,20,21 and it has been suggested that screening for p21 might identify those at risk.22 Serial measurement of fascin, an actin-binding protein that is raised in IP and strongly raised with associated malignant change, has also been proposed.23
A study by Huang et al has shown mRNA expression level for desmoglein 3 is significantly higher in IP than normal control tissue and strongly present in areas of malignant transformation, which might be helpful in prediction of change.24
Synonyms
Inverting papilloma, schneiderian papilloma.
Incidence
The frequency with which inverted papilloma (IP) is found in surgically removed nasal tumors varies from 0.5 to 4%,25,26 with an incidence ranging from 0.6 to 1.5 cases per 100,000 inhabitants per year.27,28 Another series considered the local population of Nottingham and, excluding tertiary referral cases, found the incidence was 4.3 cases per million per year.29
The frequency of IP in ostensibly normal bilateral polyps varies between 0% and 0.92%. Van Den Boer and colleagues examined material from 1,944 endoscopic procedures and found 37 unsuspected diagnoses, of which 18 were IP.30 From this they concluded that routine examination of all tissue was not justified, a conclusion that we find surprising and which we do not endorse. Age, sex, and number of recurrences did not influence the frequency of this diagnosis.31
Site
It can be difficult to determine the precise site of origin with large lesions, but the ethmoid region, the lateral wall of the nasal fossa, and the maxillary sinus are the most frequent sites of origin of inverted papilloma. There is some radiological evidence that many IPs arise within the middle meatus and spread into the adjacent sinuses. The frontal sinus is exceedingly rare as a primary site of origin. IP is thought to originate in the ethmoid region in 48%, the maxillary sinus in 28%, the sphenoid sinus in 7.5%, the frontal sinus in 2.5%, the inferior turbinate in 2.5%, and the septum in 2.5%.32,33 Distinction should be made between extension into the sinuses, with and without mucosal involvement, which can have a bearing on ease of removal and the surgical approach and may only be determined at operation.
In most cases IP is unilateral, although separate lesions can occasionally be seen seeded within the nasal cavity. However, bilateral involvement of the sinonasal tract is very rare, being reported in less than 1%34–36 to 9%37 of patients and in these instances malignancy should be suspected. In a personal series of 114 cases, there were 2 bilateral cases, both of which were associated with malignant change at presentation. In one case both frontal sinuses were separately affected and in the second the lateral wall and the floor of the nasal cavities.
Although IP most commonly arises from the lateral wall of the nasal cavity and extends into the paranasal sinuses, occasionally it may extend to the nasopharynx, and more rarely traverse the cribriform plate or orbit. While this may indicate malignant change, the authors have seen both significant intracranial and intraorbital extension in histologically proven benign IP, albeit extradural and extraperiosteal. Even intradural and intraperiosteal invasion has been described.38 IPs rarely arise from the nasal septum39 and this diagnosis would warrant close inspection as to whether the lesion is really inverted or not.
Diagnostic Features
Clinical
In the literature the age at onset ranges from 15 to 96 years, with the highest incidence occurring in the 5th and 6th decades of life.40 The male-to-female ratio is reported as between 2:1 and 5:135,41 and no significant racial differences have been noted.33 This has also been our experience (Table 6.1).
Inverted papilloma presents primarily with nasal obstruction and sometimes epistaxis. When the sphenoid is involved, patients may in addition experience neurological symptoms such as headache, visual disturbance, and even hearing loss due to eustachian obstruction.32 The tumor can extend from any origin into the nasopharynx, mimicking an antrochoanal polyp. There may be epiphora if the papilloma affects the drainage of the nasolacrimal system. As it obstructs the adjacent sinuses it can occasionally cause a mucocele or expand sufficiently into the orbit to produce proptosis, but, as this occurs slowly, there is rarely diplopia. The duration of symptoms can vary from 5 months to 20 years with a mean duration of 3.9 years.40 Conversely, some patients are asymptomatic and the papilloma is a chance finding. In one patient in our series, a sphenoidal IP came to light as part of a routine work-up prior to liver transplantation.
The diagnosis of IP should be suspected in anyone with a unilateral nasal polyp.42 On close inspection with endoscopy, they differ from “normal” polyps in that they have a cerebriform appearance often with small vessels running on the surface and are generally firm as opposed to the translucent or edematous softer polyps (Fig. 6.2). However, this is not always the case, especially with recurrent polyps, and papilloma may also be mixed with polypoid change. Therefore, when dealing with polypoid disease, it is important to send off for histology as much tissue as possible so as not to miss the diagnosis of IP and also to confirm or exclude malignancy.42 Many patients give a history of repeated unilateral polypectomies before the diagnosis is finally made.
Imaging
CT is the principal mode of imaging as it will demonstrate a soft tissue mass and any bone erosion. Although this can occur without malignant transformation, it is more likely and more extensive when present. The characteristic features on CT are a lobulated mass continuous from the middle meatus into the adjacent maxillary antrum through a widened maxillary ostium. This gives a recognizable shape somewhat similar to that of the continent of Africa (Fig. 6.3a). The other even more classic signs of IP are the presence of hyperostosis or irregular sclerosis at the periosteal bone–tumor interface and flecks of hyperdensity within the papilloma, presumed to be calcification.43–45 Two types of localized thickening have been described, a focal plaquelike hyperostosis and more prominent “cone-shaped” areas (Fig. 6.3b, Fig. 6.4).46 There is a high correlation between the areas of hyperostosis and the tumor origin.45–47
MRI is helpful in determining the extent of the tumor from retained mucus and inflamed mucosa when there is opacification within the sinuses on CT43,48 as this will assist in deciding the best surgical approach. This particularly applies to the lateral maxillary sinus, the frontal sinus, and, to a lesser extent, the orbit and skull base (Fig. 6.5). Enhanced T1W and T2W MRI is very accurate in this respect,43,49 often showing a convoluted cerebriform pattern, whereas the areas of hyperostosis appear hypodense on T1W images. In addition the tumor often shows a striated or columnar pattern that is strongly associated with IP (Fig. 6.6).50,51 Thus the surgical approach can be more accurately determined by a combination of CT and MRI.52
Although IP usually shows homogeneous enhancement with intravenous gadolinium, there are no distinctive features that differentiate this tumor from others or show foci of malignancy53 unless there are areas of marked hypodensity.51 Focal loss of the cerebriform pattern may also suggest malignant change.49,50 Bone thinning and dehiscence can be seen in benign IP, but irregular erosion and infiltration into the adjacent soft tissues suggest malignant change (Fig. 6.7). It was thought that PET scanning might be useful in this respect but it has not fulfilled its early promise.54,55
The differential diagnosis on imaging includes acute on chronic rhinosinusitis as sclerosis of adjacent sinus bone can be seen in chronic inflammation/infection. The heterogeneous hyperdensity must be distinguished from allergic/eosinophilic fungal rhinosinusitis and chondrosarcoma. Other malignancies should be considered in the presence of bone erosion and soft tissue infiltration.
Histological Features and Differential Diagnosis
The term “inverted papilloma” describes the histological appearance of the epithelium inverting into the stroma with a distinct and intact basement membrane that separates and defines the epithelial component from the underlying connective tissue stroma. There are numerous twisting ducts within the stroma lined with maturing stratified squamous epithelium. Keratinization is usually absent as are submucous glands. Residual respiratory epithelium can be seen in the duct lining, which may be ciliated and have goblet cells.
Michaels and Hellquist (see ref. 1: pp. 179–181) regard the lesion as a severe form of squamous metaplasia, initially characterized by microcyst formation with marked apoptotic activity in the inflammatory cells that accumulate there.
Microscopically the tumor can be associated with atypia, dysplasia, carcinoma in situ, as well as overt squamous cell carcinoma, but in the past the frequency with which these changes occur has been overestimated, most likely due to the underdiagnosis of well-differentiated squamous cell carcinoma. Certain factors raise suspicion of malignant change,56,57 including:
Significant bone erosion
Absence of inflammatory polyps
Increased ratio of neoplastic epithelium to stroma
Increased hyperkeratosis
Presence of squamous hyperplasia
High mitotic index
Low numbers of eosinophils
The presence of plasma cells
Malignancy can occur under two main circumstances:
Synchronous carcinoma—the carcinoma may arise from the papilloma itself or it may be found as a separate lesion.58
Metachronous carcinoma—the carcinoma arises at the site of a previously benign inverted papilloma.
In the literature the incidence of carcinoma associated with IP ranges from 0%59 to 53%.60 In an updated review of 65 published case series (3,181 patients)61 (Table 6.2), 11 series found atypia in a total of 88 cases out of 958 patients (1.1%), 9 series noted dysplasia in 9 cases out of 454 patients (1.9%), and 10 series found carcinoma in situ in 15 cases out of 494 patients (3%). Overall 6.8% had synchronous carcinoma and 3.6% developed metachronous carcinoma. The majority were squamous cell carcinomas but there were also cases of transitional cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, mucoepidermoid carcinoma, and verrucous carcinoma. The mean time interval to developing a metachronous carcinoma was 52 months (range 6–180 months). In our series we had 3 patients with carcinoma in situ change (2.6%), 8 with synchronous change (7%), and 5 (4%) with metachronous change.
No significant association between atypia or dysplasia and recurrence or malignant transformation was found, but the estimated malignant potential for recurrent disease is up to 11%.29 However, these series are mainly from tertiary referral centers and are potentially biased to the more aggressive cases.
Some reports suggest that the development of squamous cell carcinoma in IP is heralded by a reduced cellular apoptosis, which is triggered by HPV infection.113
IP must be distinguished from well-differentiated squamous cell carcinoma, with which it may easily be confused (and vice versa) on small biopsies. While frozen section may be helpful in the diagnosis of IP,114 determination of malignancy is a more difficult proposition. Nasal contact endoscopy may be applied as a noninvasive technique to diagnosis for IP and squamous cell carcinoma.115
Natural History
Generally IP is a slow-growing lesion that invaginates into the clefts of the lateral wall and ostia of adjacent sinuses, often forming a dumbbell mass between the maxillary sinus and nasal cavity. This leads to obstruction and mucus stasis within the sinuses. Initially the papilloma conforms to the anatomy but with time remodeling occurs, leading to expansion and bone erosion of the lateral wall and eventually the skull base. In addition, wherever the periosteal reaction of hyperostosis is seen on CT, IP should be assumed to be involving the adjacent mucosa. Failure to remove the affected periosteum and bone potentially leaves behind microscopic disease, hence most recurrences are in fact residual tumor although field change may also be a factor in some cases.8 Thus the frequency of “recurrence” and malignant transformation has been exaggerated in the literature, but there is no question that it does occur and may do so after many years, so long-term follow-up is recommended except in the most straightforward of cases.
Staging
An inverted papilloma sometimes has a narrow pedicle, so it has been suggested by some that the site of tumor attachment, not volume,116,117 should determine staging. However, of the various systems, the Krouse118 and Cannady119 systems seemed to correlate best with outcome according to Gras-Cabrerizo et al (Table 6.3).120
Treatment
Inverted papilloma requires surgical removal but, whatever the approach, all macroscopic tumor must be removed together with adjacent periosteum and any abnormal bone as well as a margin of “normal” mucosa, all of which should be submitted for detailed histopathology. This means that there must be access to facilitate a subperiosteal dissection and drilling of the underlying bone.
The choice of approach will depend on the extent of the disease. In the literature, surgery has ranged from a headlight intranasal polypectomy, to open approaches such as Caldwell-Luc procedures, lateral rhinotomy, midfacial degloving, and various external procedures on the frontal sinus (Table 6.4). The endoscopic resections may also be combined with external approaches such as anterior antrostomy.
In recent years, the majority of cases have been amenable to a completely endonasal endoscopic approach that encompasses an endoscopic medial maxillectomy,105,124,125 median frontal sinus procedures (Draf III),111 and resection of the skull base. This provides similar access to the major external procedures but with lower postoperative morbidity; as a consequence, IP was among the first and commonest tumors for which endoscopic surgery was undertaken. Endoscopic techniques avoid a facial or sublabial incisions, paresthesia or facial pain, epiphora, and diplopia and are associated with a shorter inpatient stay. In addition, the endoscope offers improved visualization with enhanced discrimination of tumor from normal tissue. With modern camera systems the magnification gives better visibility and the lens systems allow visualization around corners.
However, there are circumstances when the endoscopic approach may need to be combined with additional surgery. If mucosal involvement by tumor extends laterally beyond the midpoint of the orbit, an additional small external incision is required. If the anterior, inferior, or lateral walls of the maxillary sinus are extensively involved, an anterior antrostomy (modified Caldwell-Luc) may also be done to facilitate complete periosteal resection and drilling of adjacent bone. However, as mentioned above, the endoscopic medial maxillectomy has reduced the need for additional open approaches.124,125
More extensive surgery may also be necessitated by scarring of the frontal recess, distortion from previous surgery, very advanced disease, and associated malignancy.33 In a series of 87 cases of IP, 78% of whom had primary disease, 70% could be removed by an endonasal endoscopic approach but 23% required combined procedures. These were mainly those who were undergoing revision surgery.107
Outcome
It is hardly surprising that recurrence rates of up to 78% have been reported for conservative surgery comprising polypectomy or local excision.41 However, historically, external procedures such as lateral rhinotomy and midfacial degloving represented the “gold-standard.”39,69,126 Vrabec8 reported a recurrence rate of only 2% using a lateral rhinotomy with a modified Weber–Fergusson incision with a mean follow-up of 8.9 years, although a meta-analysis of the literature suggests an overall figure of 17% with a mean follow-up of over 5 years (Table 6.5). This is somewhat less than the 20% suggested by Busquets and Hwang.127
Comparable data are now available for endoscopic resection since it has now been undertaken for at least 25 years.128 Mirza et al found that recurrence rates in 63 case series was 12.8% for endoscopic procedures (n = 484), 17.0% for lateral rhinotomy with medial maxillectomy (n = 1025) and 34.2% for limited resections such as nasal polypectomy (n = 600).29 Giotakis and colleagues found very similar results in a cohort of 67 patients.112 Table 6.5 demonstrates that notwithstanding a shorter reported period of follow-up, similar results can be achieved endoscopically with 14.7% recurring with a mean follow-up of 3 years and 3 months in a similar-sized cohort.
As recurrent disease usually occurs in the first 9 months105 and generally with a mean of 30 months (range 14–48 months),129 the recurrence rates for the endoscopic group can legitimately and favorably be compared with the external group.
There is less data for combined endoscopic and external techniques. However, Woodworth et al describe 24 patients who had undergone a combined endoscopic and Caldwell-Luc approach with one recurrence (mean follow-up of 40 months for the entire series of 114 patients).130 In the Minovi et al series of 87 cases, during a follow-up period of 12 to 75 months (mean 74 months), overall recurrence was 10.3%—10% in the endonasal cases and 15% in those undergoing combined procedures.107
Many factors influence recurrence of IP: tumor location, extent, histology, multicentricity, method of removal, and length of follow-up; but the most important is the thoroughness of removal39 irrespective of the approach.41 In other words, the “recurrence” is most often at the original site (Table 6.6; Figs. 6.8 and 6.9).128 In addition, Batsakis and others have cited a mitotic index of >2/high-power microscopic field, abundant plasma cells, cellular atypia, and keratosis.131,132 Smoking has also been implicated, with a trend to multiple recurrence found by Jardine et al and Moon et al.94,133
Recurrence rates are higher in revision cases,47,130 and once IP has recurred, the risk of subsequent recurrence increases to up to 58%.76
Based on the literature, follow-up should be for a minimum of 3 years. In primary cases where excision is considered complete and there are no other confounding factors, 3 years is adequate as most “recurrences” occur within the first 9 months and mean recurrence time in general with endoscopic surgery is 28 months.107 However, if the case has already recurred, if a combined approach was needed, if there are concerns about the adequacy of the excision, or if the tumor shows signs of aggressiveness in its behavior or histology, long-term observation is required. Histologically, this would include hyperkeratosis, squamous epithelial hyperplasia, and a high mitotic index.56,57,131,132 Postoperative follow-up imaging is not usually needed unless there are areas of concern that cannot be directly inspected endoscopically, such as the lateral frontal sinus. MRI would then be preferred to CT for sequential scans (Fig. 6.10).
Not suspected (e.g., multiple “polypectomies”) |
Length of follow-up <3 years |
Inadequate removal
|
Extent of origin/multifocal |
Wrong diagnosis—bilateral (e.g., well-differentiated squamous cell carcinoma) |
If histology shows dysplasia or carcinoma in situ, a complete surgical resection may be sufficient provided the patient is available for long-term follow-up and the area is accessible to observation. However, if squamous cell carcinoma (or other malignancy) is demonstrated, a full oncological work-up and follow-up is indicated and postoperative radiotherapy at the least is recommended.22 This is offered even in some cases of carcinoma in situ; for example, when the frontal sinus or skull base are affected. Experience and the literature suggest that malignancy ex inverted papilloma can be an aggressive tumor and requires radical treatment, so a more radical surgical excision may also be indicated depending on the initial resection.113 About 40% of patients will die of their disease within the first 3 years in these circumstances.
Key Points
Malignant transformation occurs but has been overestimated and occurs in <5%.
All tissue should be submitted for histopathological examination.
Recurrence can occur but usually represents residual disease.
When complete removal is attempted, recurrence is found in 15 to 17% irrespective of the approach but is rare if subperiosteal resection ± adjacent bone is removed.
A review of the literature shows that endoscopic removal of inverted papilloma gives results as good as, if not better than, those from external approaches.
Three year follow-up is adequate if primary resection is complete, but should be continued longer if there are any concerns.
Long-term follow-up is required for “recurrent” and extensive cases and those with hyperkeratosis, squamous epithelial hyperplasia, and a high mitotic index.
References
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